1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates, in general, to compounds that inhibit protein kinase activity, and to compositions and methods related thereto.
2. Description of the Related Art
Cancer (and other hyperproliferative diseases) is characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation. This loss of the normal control of cell proliferation often appears to occur as the result of genetic damage to cell pathways that control progress through the cell cycle. The cell cycle consists of DNA synthesis (S phase), cell division or mitosis (M phase), and non-synthetic periods referred to as gap 1 (G1) and gap 2 (G2). The M-phase is composed of mitosis and cytokinesis (separation into two cells). All steps in the cell cycle are controlled by an orderly cascade of protein phosphorylation and several families of protein kinases are involved in carrying out these phosphorylation steps. In addition, the activity of many protein kinases increases in human tumors compared to normal tissue and this increased activity can be due to many factors, including increased levels of a kinase or changes in expression of co-activators or inhibitory proteins.
Cells have proteins that govern the transition from one phase of the cell cycle to another. For example, the cyclins are a family of proteins whose concentrations increase and decrease throughout the cell cycle. The cyclins turn on, at the appropriate time, different cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDKs) that phosphorylate substrates essential for progression through the cell cycle. Activity of specific CDKs at specific times is essential for both initiation and coordinated progress through the cell cycle. For example, CDK1 is the most prominent cell cycle regulator that orchestrates M-phase activities. However, a number of other mitotic protein kinases that participate in M-phase have been identified, which include members of the polo, aurora, and NIMA (Never-In-Mitosis-A) families and kinases implicated in mitotic checkpoints, mitotic exit, and cytokinesis.
Aurora kinases are a family of oncogenic serine/threonine kinases that localize to the mitotic apparatus (centrosome, poles of the bipolar spindle, or midbody) and regulate completion of centrosome separation, bipolar spindle assembly and chromosome segregation. Three human homologs of aurora kinases have been identified (aurora-1, aurora-2 and aurora-3). They all share a highly conserved catalytic domain located in the carboxyl terminus, but their amino terminal extensions are of variable lengths with no sequence similarity. The human aurora kinases are expressed in proliferating cells and are also overexpressed in numerous tumor cell lines including breast, ovary, prostate, pancreas, and colon. Aurora-2 kinase acts as an oncogene and transforms both Rat1 fibroblasts and mouse NIH3T3 cells in vitro, and aurora-2 transforms NIH 3T3 cells grown as tumors in nude mice. Excess aurora-2 may drive cells to aneuploidy (abnormal numbers of chromosomes) by accelerating the loss of tumor suppressor genes and/or amplifying oncogenes, events known to contribute to cellular transformation. Cells with excess aurora-2 may escape mitotic check points, which in turn can activate proto-oncogenes inappropriately. Up-regulation of aurora-2 has been demonstrated in a number of pancreatic cancer cell lines. In additional, aurora-2 kinase antisense oligonucleotide treatment has been shown to cause cell cycle arrest and increased apoptosis. Therefore, aurora-2 kinase is an attractive target for rational design of novel small molecule inhibitors for the treatment of cancer and other conditions.
C-kit is a transmembrane receptor belonging to the type 3 subgroup of receptor tyrosine kinases that also includes platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1), and FMS-like tyrosine kinase (Flt-3). Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), which are the most common mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, have been demonstrated to frequently over-express c-kit. GISTs are thought to originate from the Interstitial Cells of Cajal (ICCs) that play a role in the control of gut motility. ICCs express the c-kit proto-oncogene. When c-kit binds to its ligand stem cell factor (SCF) and dimerizes with another c-kit receptor, trans-autophosphorylation on tyrosines occurs and activates a number of downstream signaling pathways that lead to a proliferative response. These events are believed to contribute to the induction of GIST.
Other GISTs are associated with excess activity of platelet-derived growth factor receptor A (PDGFR-A), which is considered a key player in the new blood vessel formation necessary for tumors to grow beyond more than a few millimeters. PDGFR-A is found in stroma and pericytes (support cells for blood vessels). PDGFR-A levels have been found to be increased in a number of other tumor types.
Researchers have explored cancer treatment approaches that inhibit tyrosine kinases and other proteins involved in uncontrolled signal transduction. For example, the signal transduction inhibitors STI571, SU5614, CT52923 (herein HPK15) and PD1739 are known to inhibit the activity of Bcr-Abl, c-kit and PDGFR tyrosine kinases. STI571 GLEEVEC™; a phenylaminopyrimidine) is a small molecule inhibitor currently used in the clinic, which selectively blocks the BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase dimer in chronic myclogenous leukemia. However, GLEEVEC™ also has been shown to inhibit the c-kit and PDGFR tyrosine kinases and therefore may also be useful in tumors that over-express these receptors. Recent studies on patients with metastatic GISTs treated with STI571 have shown decreased tumor size on computed tomography and MRI and metabolic response measured with 19-fluoro-desoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET). However, two Phase I trials with STI571 at dose levels of 400 mg or 600 mg per day showed a partial response in 54%, stable disease in 34% and progressive disease in 12% of patients assessed at 1-3 months. These initial trials indicate that although a very good partial response was initially obtained, complete responses were quite rare, and patients eventually developed progressive disease. Recent studies showed that a particular mutant (V560G) of c-kit is more sensitive to STI571, and a mutant in the c-kit kinase domain (D816V) was resistant. Therefore, the design and development of novel inhibitors of mutant c-kit and/or of PDGFR are needed for the treatment of GIST and other conditions associated with excess c-kit and/or PDGFR activity.
Quinazoline derivatives have been proposed for inhibiting protein kinase activity. For example, WO 96/09294, WO 96/33981 and EP 0837 063 describe the use of certain quinazoline compounds as receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors. In addition, WO 01/21596 proposes the use of quinazoline derivatives to inhibit aurora-2 kinase.
What remains needed, however, are additional and improved inhibitors of protein kinase activity, particularly inhibitors of aurora-2 kinase, c-kit and/or PDGFR-A kinase activity. The present invention fulfills these needs and offers other related advantages.